Spartan Gold: stereomicroscope and more

pg 323

On the shelves and tables...two Zeiss stereomicroscopes

Carl Zeiss AG is a German manufacturer of optical systems, industrial measurements and medical devices, founded in Jena, Germany in 1846 by optician Carl Zeiss. Together with Ernst Abbe (joined 1866) and Otto Schott (joined 1884) they built a base for modern optics and manufacturing. There are currently two parts of the company, Carl Zeiss AG located in Oberkochen with important subsidiaries in Aalen, Göttingen and Munich, and Carl Zeiss GmbH located in Jena.
Carl Zeiss is the premier company of the Zeiss Gruppe, one of the two large divisions of the Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung. The Zeiss Gruppe is located in Heidenheim and Jena.
The other division of the Carl Zeiss Foundation, the glass manufacturer Schott AG and Jenaer Glaswerk, is located in Mainz and Jena.
Carl Zeiss is one of the oldest existing optics manufacturers in the world.

 a polarized flourescent microscope

A fluorescence microscope is an optical microscope that uses fluorescence and phosphorescence instead of, or in addition to, reflection and absorption to study properties of organic or inorganic substances.^[1][2] The "fluorescence microscope" refers to any microscope that uses fluorescence to generate an image, whether it is a more simple set up like an epifluorescence microscope, or a more complicated design such as a confocal microscope, which uses optical sectioning to get better resolution of the fluorescent image.
All fluorescence microscopy methods share the same principle. A sample is illuminated with light of a wavelength which excites fluorescence in the sample. The fluoresced light, which is usually at a longer wavelength than the illumination, is then imaged through a microscope objective. Two filters are normally used in this technique; an illumination (or excitation) filter which ensures the illumination is near monochromatic and at the correct wavelength, and a second emission (or barrier) filter which ensures none of the excitation light source reaches the detector. These functions may both be accomplished by a single dichroic filter. Fluorescence microscopy takes a fundamentally different approach to generating a light microscope image compared to transmitted or reflected white light techniques such as phase contrast and differential interference contrast microscopy. These two contrasting optical microscopy methods give very different but complementary data.

 and a handheld XRF (X-ray flourescence) device

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is the emission of characteristic "secondary" (or fluorescent) X-rays from a material that has been excited by bombarding with high-energy X-rays or gamma rays. The phenomenon is widely used for elemental analysis and chemical analysis, particularly in the investigation of metals, glass, ceramics and building materials, and for research in geochemistry, forensic science and archaeology.

 On the table's Formica surface rested pieces of Bondaruk's collection

Formica is a brand of composite materials manufactured by the Formica Corporation now based in Newcastle, Tyne & Wear, a division of the New Zealand company Fletcher Building. In common use, the term refers to the company's classic product, a heat-resistant, wipe-clean, plastic laminate of paper or fabric with melamine resin.

Spartan Gold: Sagaris and more

pg 319

I've got a Sagaris over here, a Persian battle axe

Sagaris is the ancient Greek name for a shafted weapon used by the horse-riding ancient North-Iranian Saka and Scythian peoples of the great Eurasian steppe, also by the Western and Central Asian peoples: the Medes, Persians, Parthayans, Indo-Saka, Kushans, Tocharians. Mossynoeci, and others living within the milieu of Iranian peoples, and according to Aristarchus of Samothrace, by the legendary Amazons. The weapon was a kind of battle-axe, collected from Eurasian steppe archeological excavations and depicted on the Achaemenid cylinders and ancient Greek pottery and other surviving iconographic material as a long-shafted weapon with a metal head, with a either sharp(ax-like) or blunt (hammer-like) edge on one side and a sharp (straight or curving) 'ice-pick'-like point on the other (shown here in the Greek pottery painting of a Scythian archer holding a sagaris). Possibly from this weapon arose an attribution of the invention of the battle-axe to the Amazons by medieval and Renaissance authors (e.g. Johannes Aventinus), and a (modern) association of the Amazons with the Labrys. A shorter form of sagaris, as shown held by Spalirises, was labelled klevets by Russian archaeologist and ancient military historian V.P.Nikonorov (The Armies of Bactria 700 BC-400 AD, Valerii.P.Nikonorov. Montvert Publications, 1997).

It was a long white melamine desk

Melamine is an organic base and a trimer of cyanamide, with a 1,3,5-triazine skeleton. Like cyanamide, it contains 66% nitrogen by mass and, if mixed with resins, has fire retardant properties due to its release of nitrogen gas when burned or charred, and has several other industrial uses. Melamine is also a metabolite of cyromazine, a pesticide. It is formed in the body of mammals who have ingested cyromazine. It has been reported that cyromazine can also be converted to melamine in plants

(Apparently the Chinese have, in the past, put this into animal food which kills them.) It's also used to make desks, which apparently are safe.

Square section autoclave

 On the shelves and tables was, Sam estimated, a quarter-million dollars worth of restoration equipment, includng autoclaves.

An autoclave is a device used to sterilize equipment and supplies by subjecting them to high pressure saturated steam at 121 °C for around 15–20 minutes depending on the size of the load and the contents. It was invented by Charles Chamberland in 1879, although a precursor known as the steam digester was created by Denis Papin in 1679. The name comes from Greek auto-, ultimately meaning self, and Latin clavis meaning key—a self-locking device

Spartan Gold: Dosemealti asnd more

pg 318

"The rug. It's a Dosemealti- they're woven by Yoruk nomads."

The Yörüks, also Yuruks or Yorouks (Turkish: Yörük, Greek: Γιουρούκοι, Bulgarian: юруци, Macedonian: Јуруци) are a Turkish group of people^[1],some of whom are still nomadic, primarily inhabiting the mountains of Anatolia and partly Balkan peninsula. Their name derives from the Turkish verb yürü- (yürümek in infinitive), which means "to walk", with the word yorouk or Yuruk designating "those who walk, walkers

Dosemealti is a region in Turkey, according to Wikipedia.

CarpetView has an article on the rugs:

Dosemealti nomad rugs (or also known as Dosemealti Village rugs or Tribal carpets) are renowned for their thick pile, powerful images, and rich colours. These nomad rugs are hand-knotted by the semi-nomadic tribes in the Antalya region of Turkey. These people live on the Mediterranean Coast in the valleys of the Taurus Mountains where the climate can turn cold.

This means they have learned to create Dosemealti rugs that can withstand the cold temperatures and help keep them warm. These tribal carpets are placed on the floors and walls of their homes to keep out the cold and give them warmth and comfort. There are 23 villages located in the mountains and there are two tribes, the Karakoyunlu and Sarikecili nomadic tribes, that create the incredible Dosemealti rugs.

The thick piles of the Dosemealti nomad rugs are made from wool and are dyed with natural plant-based dyes. Rugs made from hand-spun wool are of the best quality and in the region of the Taurus Mountains men spin wool right alongside the women, something that is unheard of in other regions of Turkey. Dosemealti rugs can contain up to 200,000 to 300,000 knots per square meter and they are made in various sizes and shapes, such as large area rugs, small area rugs, prayer rugs, and runner rugs.

http://www.carpetview.com/content/20-nomad-rugs

 "Here's something called a gerron. Used by Persian troops."

These poorly trained, levy infantry are supplied by the great nobles (Azads) from their estates in the more settled regions of the Persian Empire. They are armed with an infantry spear and brown, leather-covered, wicker shield, a smaller version of the old spara (gerron) of imperial days, and a short sword or axe. Their primary order of battle would consist of spearmen fighting in ordered ranks. Groups of spearmen such as these are trained to form rows across and files deep and to march in step. Grouping together bolsters morale and the shield wall helps to neutralize arrows. However, the oft-repeated myth of 'roped or chained' Persian troops is an invention of literature. The Arabic term 'silsilah' is very likely a poetic device meant to imply soldiers organized into close order units. The same term is used to refer to both Sassanid Persian and Byzantine cavalry, neither of which could have conceivably been physically tied together in groups! 

 "An akinakes...carried by Persian Immortals of the Achaemenid Dynasty

The "Immortals" (from the Greek Ἀθάνατοι, sometimes "Ten Thousand Immortals" or "Persian Immortals") was the name given by Herodotus to an elite force of soldiers who fought for the Achaemenid Empire. This force performed the dual roles of both Imperial Guard and standing army during the Persian Empire's expansion and during the Greco-Persian Wars. Its Persian name may have been Anûšiya ('companions').
Herodotus describes the 'Immortals' as being heavy infantry led by Hydarnes that were kept constantly at a strength of exactly 10,000 men. He claimed that the unit's name stemmed from the custom that every killed, seriously wounded or sick member was immediately replaced with a new one, maintaining the cohesion of the unit.
This elite corps is only called the 'Immortals' in sources based on Herodotus. While there is evidence for them from Persia, this does not mention this name for them."Probably, Herodotus' informant has confused the name Anûšiya ('companions') with Anauša ('Immortals').

The acinaces, also spelled akinakes (Greek ἀκινάκης) or akinaka (unattested Old Persian *akīnaka^h) is a type of dagger or short sword used mainly in the first millennium BC in the eastern Mediterranean region, especially by the Medes, Scythians and Persians, then by the Greeks.
The acinaces is of Scythian origin, but was made famous by the Persians, and rapidly spread throughout the ancient world. Its influence can even be seen in the design of Chinese weapons such as the jinglu sword.The Romans believed this weapon originated with the Medes.
The acinaces is typically 35–45 cm. (14-18 in.) in length and double-edged, and although there is no universal design, the guard may be lobed with the hilt resembling that of a bollock dagger, or the pommel may be splitor of the "antenna" type. Interestingly, the scabbard as much as anything else defines the acinaces and usually has a large decorative mount near the opening allowing it to be suspended from a belt on the wearer's right side.
Since the acinaces seems to have been a thrusting weapon, and since it was typically worn on the right, it was likely intended to be suddenly drawn with the blade facing down for surprise stabbing attacks.

Spartan Gold: the kris dagger

pg 309

"The kris dagger. The traditional weapon of the Malay.."

 Both a weapon and spiritual object, kris are often considered to have an essence or presence, considered to possess magical powers, with some blades possessing good luck and others possessing bad.Kris are used for display, as talismans with magical powers, weapons, a sanctified heirloom (pusaka), auxiliary equipment for court soldiers, an accessory for ceremonial dress, an indicator of social status, a symbol of heroism, etc. Legendary kris that possess supernatural power and extraordinary ability were mentioned in traditional folktales, such as those of Mpu Gandring, Taming Sari, and Setan Kober

 "The Chinese dao. Perhaps the best melee weapon ever produced."

 Dao is a category of single-edge Chinese swords primarily used for slashing and chopping (sabers), often called a broadsword in English translation because some varieties have wide blades. In China, the dao is known as one of the four major weapons, along with the gun (staff), qiang (spear), and the jian (sword), and referred to as "The General of All Weapons". Dao is actually a generic word used to denote any member of a family of single-edged, broad-bladed cutting or slicing tools, but in common, everyday usage means knife. The weapon, also known as dan dao (單刀, "single knife") when just one is used, is thereby thought to be an adaptation of the kitchen knives common to Chinese cuisine. Dao also appears in the names of such polearms as the pudao and guan dao, due to the knife-like shape of their blades.

 finding a Glock nine-millimeter pistol in a hip paddle holster

An early "third generation" Glock 17

The Glock pistol, sometimes referred to by the manufacturer as Glock "Safe Action" Pistol, is a series of semi-automatic pistols designed and produced by Glock Ges.m.b.H., located in Deutsch-Wagram, Austria. The company's founder, engineer Gaston Glock, had no experience with firearm design or manufacture at the time their first pistol, the Glock 17, was being prototyped. Glock did, however, have extensive experience in advanced synthetic polymers, knowledge of which was instrumental in the company's design of the first successful line of pistols with a polymer frame. Glock introduced ferritic nitrocarburizing into the firearms industry as an anti-corrosion surface treatment for metal gun parts.
Despite initial resistance from the market to accept a "plastic gun" due to durability and reliability concerns, Glock pistols have become the company's most profitable line of products, commanding 65% of the market share of handguns for United States law enforcement agencies as well as supplying numerous national armed forces and security agencies worldwide.

A paddle holster is a holster for a handgun whose method of securing the holster to the wearer utilizes a flat, concave shaped piece of plastic or stiffened leather designed to be worn against the body inside of the pants. The broad surface area of the "paddle" and the material from which it is made use friction to prevent the holster from being pulled up and away when the handgun is drawn.

Spartan Gold: Weapons

pg 308

History buff that he was, Sam immediately recognized many of the weapons: the famous claymore, the Scottish two-handed broadsword, a bardiche, a Russia poleaxe, a short, curved French falchion, a shamshir, a Persian sabre, the Japanese katana, the samurai's weaponn of choice, the classic Roman short sword known as the gladius.


Claymore replica

Two examples of a bardiche.

 

 

Falchion

 

 

 Shamshir

 

Antique Japanese (samurai) daishō, the traditional pairing of two Japanese swords which were the symbol of the samurai. showing the traditional Japanese sword cases (koshirae) and the difference in size between the katana (top) and the smaller wakizashi (bottom).

 

 
Replica pseudo-Pompeii gladius.

 

Still others were new to him: a British mameluke saber, a Turkish yataghan, a Viking throwing ax known as ther Mammen, a ruby-inlaid Moroccan koummya.

Turkish kilij from Topkapi Palace Museum

 

Yatagans from Imperial Armoury-Topkapı Palace Museum

Mammen Axe 17-3/4 Overall

 

 

Koumya dagger and sheathe 

 

Paused to admire a gleaming, sickle shaped Egyptian khopesh.


18th century BC khopesh found in Shechem, West Bank; the blade is decorated with electrum inlays.

Spartan Gold: Ebb tide and more

pg 2912

Ebb tide or not, neither of them wanted to risk another run through the labyrinth.

The period between high tide and the next low tide in which the sea is receding.

"Summer Wind" by Frank Sinatra

"Summer Wind" is a 1965 song, with music by Heinz Meier and lyrics by Johnny Mercer. The song is a nostalgic tale of a fleeting romance, first recorded by Wayne Newton who had the first national chart hit with the song in 1965, peaking at number 78.
"Summer Wind" is best known for a 1966 recording by Frank Sinatra which peaked at number twenty-five on the Billboard pop singles chart and number one on the Easy Listening chart.^[1] The Sinatra version originally appeared on his album, Strangers in the Night.

 "That's the idea, my lapochka."

 Lapochka is a Russian term of endearment for a young girl.

Spartan Gold: Balaclava train station and more

pg 282

..they'd followed the Ukrainian to the Balaclava train station

Balaklava  is a former city on the Crimean peninsula and part of the city of Sevastopol which carries a special administrative status in Ukraine. It was a city in its own right until 1957 when it was formally incorporated into the municipal borders of Sevastopol by the Soviet government. It also is an administrative center of Bakalava Raion that used be part of the Crimean Oblast before it was transferred under the Sevastopol Municipality.

Back at their hotel in Yevpatoria

 Yevpatoria or Eupatoria (Ukrainian: Євпато́рія, Yevpatoriya, Russian: Евпато́рия, Yevpatoriya, Crimean Tatar: Kezlev, Greek: Ευπατορία, Κερκινίτις - Eupatoria, Kerkinitis, Turkish: Gözleve, Armenian: Եվպատորիա - Yevpatoria) is a city in Crimea, Ukraine.

"Damn the torpedoes," Sam said and throttled up.

The Battle of Mobile Bay of August 5, 1864, was an engagement of the American Civil War in which a Federal fleet commanded by Rear Adm. David G. Farragut, assisted by a contingent of soldiers, attacked a smaller Confederate fleet led by Adm. Franklin Buchanan and three forts that guarded the entrance to Mobile Bay.

The battle was marked by Farragut's seemingly rash but successful run through a minefield that had just claimed one of his ironclad monitors, enabling his fleet to get beyond the range of the shore-based guns.

(At this time, mines were called torpedoes, and it was these mines that Farragut meant when he said, "Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead.")

This was followed by a reduction of the Confederate fleet to a single vessel, ironclad CSS Tennessee. Tennessee did not then retire, but engaged the entire Northern fleet.

The armor on Tennessee gave her an advantage that enabled her to inflict more injury than she received, but she could not overcome the imbalance in numbers.

She was eventually reduced to a motionless hulk, unable either to move or to reply to the guns of the Union fleet. Her captain then surrendered, ending the battle. With no Navy to support them, the three forts within days also surrendered. Complete control of the lower Mobile Bay thus passed to the Union forces.

Mobile had been the last important port on the Gulf of Mexico east of the Mississippi River remaining in Confederate possession, so its closure was the final step in completing the blockade in that region.
This Union victory, together with the capture of Atlanta, was extensively covered by Union newspapers and was a significant boost for Abraham Lincoln's bid for re-election three months after the battle.

Spartan Gold: 50,000 Ukrainian hryvnias and more

pg 279

"The amount he was asking for - fifty thousand Ukrainian hryvnias, or 10,000 US dollars..."

The hryvnia, sometimes hryvnya or grivna (Ukrainian: гривня, pronounced [ˈɦrɪu̯ɲɑ], abbr.: грн (hrn in Latin alphabet)); sign: ₴, code: (UAH), has been the national currency of Ukraine since September 2, 1996. The hryvnia is subdivided into 100 kopiyok. In medieval times, it was a currency of Kievan Rus'.

"You know about Pripyat, yes?"

Prypiat is a ghost town near the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, within the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, part of Kiev Oblast (province) of northern Ukraine, near the border with Belarus.
The city has a special status within the Kiev Oblast, being the city of oblast-level subordination, although it is located within the limits of Ivankiv Raion. The city also is being supervised by the Ministry of Emergencies of Ukraine as part of the Zone of Alienation jurisdiction.
Pripyat was founded in 1970 to house workers for the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. It was officially proclaimed a city in 1979 but was abandoned in 1986 following the Chernobyl disaster. It was the ninth nuclear city (Russian: атомоград atomograd) in the Soviet Union at the time and its population was around 50,000 before the accident^[.
The annual rate of natural increase for the city's population was estimated at around 800 persons, plus over 500 newcomers from all corners of the Soviet Union each year; Pripyat's population had been expected to rise to 78,000. The Yanov railroad station (part of Chernigov-Ovruch railroad link) was less than 1 km away from the city, and the navigable Pripyat River flows nearby.

Post Chernobyl Years
In 1986 the city of Slavutich was constructed to replace Pripyat. After the city of Chernobyl, this is the second-largest city for accommodating power plant workers and scientists in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

Many of the building interiors in Pripyat have been vandalised and ransacked over the years. Because the buildings have not been maintained since 1986, the roofs leak, and in the springtime the rooms are flooded with water. Trees can be seen growing on roofs and even inside the buildings. All this adds to the deterioration process; a four-story school collapsed in July 2005.
One notable landmark often featured in photographs of the city, video games (such as Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare and the S.T.A.L.K.E.R. series) and visible from aerial-imaging websites such as Google Maps, is the long-abandoned ferris wheel located in the Pripyat amusement park.

 Safety
A natural concern is whether it is safe to visit Prypiat and the surroundings. The Zone of Alienation is considered relatively safe to visit, and several Ukrainian companies offer guided tours around the area. The radiation levels have dropped considerably, compared to the fatal levels of April 1986, due to the decay of the short-lived isotopes released during the accident. In most places within the city, the level of radiation does not exceed an equivalent dose of 1 μSv (one microsievert) per hour^.

The city and the Zone of Alienation are now bordered with guards and police, but obtaining the necessary documents to enter the zone is not considered particularly difficult. In 2005, New York-based entrepreneur David C. Haines founded a company to provide guided tours of the city. A guide accompanies visitors to ensure nothing is vandalised or taken from the zone.
The doors of most of the buildings are held open to reduce the risk to visitors, and almost all of them can be visited when accompanied by a guide. The city of Chernobyl, a few kilometers south from Pripyat, has some accommodation including a hotel, many apartment buildings, and a local lodge, which are maintained as a permanent residence for watch-standing crew and tourists

 "The town near Chernobyl."

The Chernobyl disaster  was a catastrophic nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine (then officially Ukrainian SSR), which was under the direct jurisdiction of the central authorities of the Soviet Union. An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive contamination into the atmosphere, which spread over much of Western USSR and Europe. It is widely considered to have been the worst nuclear power plant accident in history, and is one of only two classified as a level 7 event on the International Nuclear Event Scale (the other being the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011). The battle to contain the contamination and avert a greater catastrophe ultimately involved over 500,000 workers and cost an estimated 18 billion rubles.

Spartan Gold: Siege of Sevastopol and more

pg 274 ...first as a museum dedicated to the Siege of Sevastopol There have been two sieges of Sevastopol. I'm assumimg the museum would have been dedicated to the Crimean war siege.

The Siege of Sevastopol (sometimes rendered "Sebastopol") was a major siege, lasting from September 1854 until September 1855, during the Crimean War. The allies (French, Ottoman and British) landed at Eupatoria on 14 September 1854, intending to make a 35 mile triumphal march to Sevastopol the capital of the Crimea, with 50,000 men. To traverse the 35 miles, the allied forces fought for a year against the Russians. The major battles the army fought to reach the capital were: "Alma" (September 1854), "Balaklava" (October 1854), "Inkerman" (November 1854), "Tchernaya" (August 1855), "Redan" (September 1855), and, finally, "Sebastopol" (September 1855). During the siege, the allied navy made six bombardments of the capital: October 17, 1854; April 9, June 6, June 17, August 17, and September 5, 1855.

Sebastopol is one of the classic sieges of all time.[9] The city of Sevastopol was the home of the Tsar's Black Sea Fleet which threatened the Mediterranean. Before the allies encircled it, the Russian field army withdrew. The siege was the culminating struggle for the strategic Russian port in 1854-5 and was the final bloody episode in the costly Crimean War.

During the Victorian Era, these battles were repeatedly memorialized. The Siege of Sevastopol was the subject of Crimean soldier Leo Tolstoy's Sebastopol Sketches and the subject of the first Russian feature film, Defence of Sevastopol. The Battle of Balaklava was made famous by Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem "The Charge of the Light Brigade" and Robert Gibb's painting Thin Red Line. (Treating the wounded from these battles was celebrated English nurse Florence Nightingale.)

Bohuslav grinned, displaying a trio of silver front teeth.

From PubMed 2002. I don't think these are used any more except perhaps in Eastern Europe.

The stainless steel crown (SSC) is an extremely durable restoration with several clear-cut indications for use in primary teeth including: following a pulpotomy/pulpectomy; for teeth with developmental defects or large carious lesions involving multiple surfaces where an amalgam is likely to fail; and for fractured teeth. In other situations, its use is less clear cut, and caries risk factors, restoration longevity and cost effectiveness are considerations in decisions to use the SSC. The literature on caries risk factors in young children indicates that children at high risk exhibiting anterior tooth decay and/or molar caries may benefit by treatment with stainless steel crowns to protect the remaining at-risk tooth surfaces. Studies evaluating restoration longevity, including the durability and lifespan of SSCs and Class II amalgams demonstrate the superiority of SSCs for both parameters.

Children with extensive decay, large lesions or multiple surface lesions in primary molars should be treated with stainless steel crowns. Because of the protection from future decay provided by their feature of full coverage and their increased durability and longevity, strong consideration should be given to the use of SSCs in children who require general anesthesia. Finally, a strong argument for the use of the SSC restoration is its cost effectiveness based on its durability and longevity.

He wanted help making it look more like Zaporozhian Cossack period

Zaporizhia (Wild Fields or Savage Steppe), Russian: Запоро́жье, Zaporozhye) is a historical region which is situated about the Dnieper River, below the Dnieper rapids (porohy, poroża), now Ukraine, hence the name, translated as "territory beyond the rapids". During the 16th to 18th centuries it was a semi-independent Cossack territory with the centre at the Zaporizhian Sich.

It corresponds to modern Dnipropetrovsk Oblast, major parts of Zaporizhia and Kirovohrad Oblasts, as well as parts of Kherson and Donetsk Oblasts of Ukraine.

Spartan Gold: Bogdan Abdank and more

pg 275 "His name was Bogdan Abdank. He was the Zaporozhian Cossack who took it over from the Mongols."

He would seem to be a fictional creation of Cussler's, as I could find no record of him.

Cossacks

Cossacks are a group of predominantly East Slavic people who originally were members of democratic, semi-military communities in Ukraine and Southern Russia. They inhabited sparsely populated areas and islands in the lower Dnieper and Don basins, and played an important role in the historical development of both Ukraine and Russia.

The origins of the first Cossacks are disputed. Traditional historiography dates the emergence of Cossacks to the 14th to 15th centuries. Towards the end of the 15th century, the Ukrainian Cossacks formed the Zaporozhian Sich centered on the fortified Dnipro islands. Initially a vassal of Poland-Lithuania, the increasing social and religious pressure from the Commonwealth caused them to proclaim an independent Cossack Hetmanate, initiated by a rebellion under Bohdan Khmelnytsky in the mid-17th century. Afterwards, the Treaty of Pereyaslav brought most of the Ukrainian Cossack state under Russian control for the next 300 years.

The Don Cossack Host, which had been established by the 16th century, allied itself with the Muscovite Tsardom. Together they began a systematic conquest and colonisation of lands in order to secure the borders on the Volga, the whole of Siberia (see Yermak Timofeyevich), the Yaik and the Terek Rivers. By the 18th century, Cossack hosts in the Russian Empire served as buffer zones on her borders. However, the expansionist ambitions of the empire relied on ensuring the loyalty of Cossacks, which caused tension with their traditional freedom and independence. In the 17th and 18th centuries this resulted in anti-imperial rebellions and wars led by Stenka Razin, Kondraty Bulavin and Yemelyan Pugachev. In extreme cases, whole Hosts could be dissolved, as was the fate of the Zaporozhian Sich in 1775. By the end of the 18th century, Cossacks were transformed into a special social estate (Sosloviye); they served as border guards on national and internal ethnic borders (as was the case in the Caucasus War) and regularly supplied men to conflicts such as the numerous Russo-Turkish Wars. In return, they enjoyed vast social autonomy. This caused them to form a stereotypical portrayal of 19th century Russian Empire abroad and her government domestically.

During the Russian Civil War, Cossack regions became centres for the Anti-Bolshevik White movement, a portion of whom would form the White emigration. The Cossacks even formed short-lived independent states, the Ukrainian State, the Don Republic and the Kuban People's Republic. With the victory of the Red Army, the Cossack lands were subjected to famine (Holodomor), and suffered extensive repression. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Cossack lifestyle and its ideas have made a return in Russia. In Russia's 2010 Population Census, Cossacks have been recognized as an ethnicity. There are Cossack organizations in Russia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, and USA

"According to the online archives Selma was able to unearth in the National Taras Shevchenko University of Kiev..."

Taras Shevchenko University or officially the Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv (Ukrainian: Київський національний університет імені Тараса Шевченка), colloquially known in Ukrainian as KNU (Ukrainian: Київський національний універcитет - КНУ) is located in Kiev, the capital of Ukraine. It is the third oldest university in Ukraine after the University of Lviv and Kharkiv University. Currently, its structure consists of fifteen faculties (academic departments) and five institutes.

It was founded in 1834 as the University of Saint Vladimir, and since then it has changed its name several times. During the Soviet Union era, Taras Shevchenko University was one of the top three universities in the USSR, along with Moscow State University and Leningrad State University. It is ranked as the best university in Ukraine in many rankings (see below). Throughout history, the university has produced many famous alumni including Nikolay Bunge, Mykhailo Drahomanov, Mykhailo Hrushevskyi, Nikolai Berdyaev, Mikhail Bulgakov, Viacheslav Chornovil, Leonid Kravchuk, Oksana Zabuzhko, and many others.